Transforming Conflicts: Conflict Resolution at Its Best

Celia Cook-Huffman
Professor of Peace and Conflict Studies
Associate Director of the Baker Institute
Juniata College

Spring 2007

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Conflict regulation, management, resolution, transformation—these are the words that define, describe, and delineate a field of study that emerged as its own discipline following World War II (Deutsch and Coleman xi). The movement through a number of defining terms reflects an ongoing dialogue in the field. Terms have changed as the field has matured and theorists, practitioners, and activists have worked to find the right words to name and bind together the theories, practices, and norms that, however fluidly, shape the borders of the field.
Conflict transformation and conflict resolution as discussed in this essay are traditions bound to the larger field of peace studies (Galtung). This perspective grounds the theory and practice of resolving specific conflicts within the larger context of building peaceful relationships, institutions and societies. The field is normative, assuming that conflict is a healthy and necessary part of the human condition and that how we deal with conflict is a choice—we can learn to handle conflict in productive ways and unlearn destructive habits.

Tracing the history of the language of the field sheds some insight on the current debate about the difference between conflict resolution and conflict transformation. There is general agreement that the field has moved from an emphasis on ending specific disputes (conflict settlement) to a more comprehensive approach that denotes not only a settlement of differences but a transformation of the deep-rooted causes of conflict and the relationships between parties, thus leading to a deeper resolution of the conflict (Laue, Resolution). The goal of the language of transformation is to emphasize the importance of dealing with the structural and cultural causes of the conflict. In conflict transformation, not only has violent or destructive behavior ended but the attitudes and relationships between the parties have changed, as have the “institutions and discourses that reproduce violence” (Ramsbotham, Woodhouse, and Miall 29). It is a relationship-centered approach that incorporates change processes that come before and extend after immediate solutions to specific issues and seeks to understand the conflict within a particular context (Lederach, Little; Miall). This survey will not attempt to settle this dispute, but will move forward using the perspective of Ramsbotham, Woodhouse, and Miall that conflict transformation is the deepest level of conflict resolution work (8).

What then is conflict resolution work? In its simplest form, the goal of the work is to support and encourage the constructive waging and resolving of conflicts. Broadly conceived the field has seven elements:

1. First, it is a multidisciplinary enterprise that seeks to understand the processes and properties that are part of conflict as a phenomenon.
2. Second, the field seeks to illuminate through research and practice those skills and processes that can aid parties in finding solutions to competing interests. It also looks at the question of who participates, tending towards broad definitions of parties (all those affected by decisions) and the importance of building skills within and among local actors as well as using “outsider experts” who may provide a variety of expertise (substantive, technical, process, etc.)
   
3. Third, this work is grounded in a normative perspective that argues both interpersonal and structural realities must be targets of change such that justice is increased, structural causes are addressed, and norms for continued nonviolent peacemaking are created.
4. The fourth element of the field diverges from the first as it looks for differences in conflicts across levels, contexts, causes, and methods of waging conflict, wanting to understand how these differences impact both analysis of the conflict and approaches to problem solving (i.e., How are interpersonal conflicts different from international disputes? How do factors such as vested interests in the continuation of the conflict, the use of terrorist tactics, or the existence of gross violations of human rights demand different responses? How does a conflict over identity differ from a conflict over water rights?)
5. The fifth element continues in this vein, linking specific conflict resolution responses to different phases of the conflict. Thus conflict theorists want to understand how the nature of the conflict (fourth element) and the stage of the conflict (fifth element) drive appropriate responses.
   
6. The sixth element is a broad, comprehensive approach that argues the work of the field encompasses activities ranging from conflict analysis and prevention to peacekeeping, peacemaking, post-conflict reconstruction, peace building and reconciliation efforts.
7. Finally, the seventh element links issues of resolving conflict to issues of waging conflict. If we in the field take seriously the claim that conflict often signals a need for change and the willingness of parties to act as change agents, we must elucidate when conflicts may need to be waged rather than resolved, and suggest the means by which individuals and collectives can wage conflicts using peaceful means.

In the remainder of this brief essay I shall return to the seven elements and briefly highlight key contributions to each.

1. Processes and Properties of Conflict. There are a number of excellent texts that explore the properties of conflict and include systematic frameworks for understanding and analyzing social conflict in general (Pruitt and Kim), as well as international (Azar and Burton), group (Kriesberg), and interpersonal conflicts (Wilmot and Hocker) more specifically. Authors also offer theoretical explanations for the existence of conflict in the human condition (Schellenberg; hooks).

2. Conflict Transformation Skills and Methods. There is a broad range of skills and methods central to the practice of conflict transformation. Two of the most prominent skill sets are negotiation (Fisher and Ury; Sebenius; Kritek) and mediation (Moore). Other practical and necessary skills include communication (Stone, Patton, and Heen) and problem solving (Mennonite Conciliation Service, Mediation). Perhaps the biggest challenge, however, for conflict transformation lies with the skills required of third parties who are trying to assist conflicting parties deal with their differences. The issues surrounding intervention are many and complex, ranging from questions of who, when, and how (Laue, Getting) to, of course, what (Cheldelin). Moving from interpersonal contexts to groups, organizations, nations, and states, the complexities of conflict transformation multiply exponentially as negotiations become multilateral and issues become increasingly intractable (Berkovitch).

3. Structural Change in Just Peace Building. Normative perspectives of the field, focused on the need for both conflict and justice, require that resolution or transformation strategies include a clear assessment of the conflict in context (Miall). This allows structural, cultural and global influences to be examined as closely as parties, issues, and relationships. They argue that if conflicts are to be truly transformative (i.e., they lead to healthy, just, engaging relationships), systems and structures must change in ways that increase justice and decrease violence (Lederach, Little).

4. The Nature of Particular Conflicts. As conflicts range across levels and contexts, their diversity requires a move from general theories of conflicts to theories of particular conflicts. The need to understand particularities of parties, issues, historical context, and party strategy honors the uniqueness of individuals, groups, and cultures, and ensures that theory is tied to experience and practice (Rupensinghe). This work may take the form of case studies and comparative analysis or a focus on particular types of conflicts. For example there exists within the field a rich literature on topics like ethnic conflicts (Gurr), environmental conflicts (Amy), and identity conflicts (Gender).

5. Stages of Conflict. Conflicts can be divided into various stages or phases, each of which requires a particular intervention strategy or response. Resolution and transformation strategies must, therefore, be adaptive to the current moment of the conflict. Strategies to prevent escalation do not and should not be the same as strategies designed to build a peace agreement, or foster reconciliation (Fisher and Keashly).

6. Comprehensive Approach to Conflict Transformation. The sixth element advocates a comprehensive approach. Having argued the need to pay attention to what is needed in a particular time and place (element five), theorists and practitioners in the field also point to the need to keep in mind what has come before and what might be needed next. The field is not focused on simply building agreements between disputing parties; rather, it wants to speak to all the needs that arise as parties move from war through stalemate, de-escalation, ceasefires, and beyond to reconstruction and reconciliation. Transformation suggests the field is ready to speak to issues running the gamut from prevention to reconciliation, from building agreements to building civil society (Lund; Reychler and Paffenholz).

7. Waging Conflict Peacefully. Finally, from its early days the field has understood the need to wage conflicts as well as resolve them. Curle’s work in 1971 on the transformation of asymmetric relationships recognized the importance of education and confrontation to create greater parity prior to negotiations. Theorists of nonviolence also make a significant contribution to understanding how groups wage conflict in order to transform systems and structures of oppression and inequality (Sharp; Bringing)

Taken together these seven activities constitute the work of conflict transformation. In the words of Ramsbotham, Woodhouse, and Miall, the path from “negative to positive peace runs through justice” (236). It is a path that requires processes and mechanisms for ending war and violent conflicts, whether between states, communities or individuals, and the building of relationships, structures and cultures of sustainable peace. It is a path that requires many transformations.

Bibliography

Amy, Douglas. “The Politics of Environmental Mediation.” Ecology Law Quarterly 11.1 (1983): 1-19.

In this concise article, Douglas Amy takes a critical look at the role of mediation in environmental conflicts. While acknowledging the success of mediation efforts in a number of environmental conflicts, Amy is concerned that mediation often co-opts environmental interests. He looks at three forms of potential co-optation in the mediation process: 1) the cooperative atmosphere that pushes environmentalists to give up too much, 2) power imbalances favoring pro-development interests, leading to unfair concessions from environmental groups, and 3) the way in which mediation frames environmental issues, giving advantage to pro-development groups.

In addressing each of the three areas of potential bias, Amy refers to case studies, research, and the work of practitioners in order to build a case for approaching environmental mediation with caution.

Amy’s most enduring contribution to the literature lies in his discussion of the third problem area. Mediators, he argues, tend to define environmental issues in ways that favor pro-development interests. This may be unintentional but happens because of the desire for win-win solutions and the notion that all claims are equally valid. Amy argues that environmental conflicts are often about value differences, not conflicts of interests where compromise makes sense. For many environmentalists, ecological viability is a value, one that cannot be compromised. How do you negotiate partially clean water, or mostly safe nuclear waste? In the face of deep value differences, Amy argues mediation should be approached with caution.

Azar, Edward, and John Burton, eds. International Conflict Resolution. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1986.

This text was written with the explicit intention of furthering the theory and practice of international conflict resolution. The book begins with a critique of traditional international relations theory followed by an exploration of an alternative theoretical framework for resolving interstate conflicts and an outline of the problem-solving process designed to address the underlying causes of international conflicts. The final two chapters link theory and practice through a discussion of case studies.

The theory proposed by Azar and Burton situates identity groups (rather than the state) as the primary unit for understanding conflict. The identity group is seen as central for both understanding conflicts and resolving them. For the authors, failure to meet the needs of the identity group and to understand the relationship between the state and communal identity groups (racial, religious, ethnic, etc.) will result in the inability of the international system to deal effectively with inter- and intrastate conflict.

Two decades after this text was written, much of what is argued here is taken for granted. The language of protracted social conflict is now accepted, as is the idea that the denial of basic human rights is a source of conflict, and that the identity group serves an important function in mobilizing conflicting groups. The book continues to provide a compelling argument for the importance of understanding identity needs if parties truly want to resolve international conflicts.

Berkovitch, Jacob, ed. Resolving International Conflicts: The Theory and Practice of Mediation. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1996.

The difficulties of using mediation in the international arena are many. At the same time, the nature of international conflict, and the danger and destruction that result when conflicts at this level spiral into violence, have pushed scholars to pursue greater understanding of when and how mediation can work in the international context.

Berkovitch’s book is a key source of this knowledge. It begins with a review of the literature on mediation. The discussion of the circumstances that impact mediation effectiveness is particularly useful. The next two sections of the book deal with factors central to successful mediation in the international arena: bias and impartiality, and cultural differences. The final two sections use case studies to explore the range of activities used by mediators in the international context and the wide variety of actors who play mediating roles.

Bringing Down a Dictator. Narr. Martin Sheen. York Zimmerman Inc., 2001.

This film documents the powerful story of the nonviolent movement that brought down the government of Slobodan Milosevic in October 2000. The movie follows the work of a student-led group called Otpor! (Serbian for resistance) that sets out to remove Miolosevic from power with strategic, systematic nonviolent action.

Early in the new year 2000, Otpor! began a campaign driven by the slogan “He’s Finished.” Using public demonstrations, civil disobedience, political organizing, direct challenges to Milsovic’s support (particularly the police and army), and widespread nonviolence training, the group succeeded in forcing Milsovic to accept the outcome of the 2000 election. He was no longer in power.

Narrated by Martin Sheen, the movie uses interviews with key leaders and footage of protests and other events to give the viewer an inside look at the people, strategy, and heart that made this movement a profound testimony to the strength and power of nonviolent action.

Cheldelin, Sandra, Daniel Druckman, and Larissa Fast, eds. Conflict: From Analysis to Intervention. New York: Continuum, 2003.

The editors of this volume took on the task of putting together a comprehensive text that integrates theory, research, and practice in the field of conflict resolution. Refusing to be bound by traditional “types” or “levels” of conflict, the authors present a multidisciplinary treatise that examines factors that influence how and when conflicts emerge and sets the stage for a systematic articulation of intervention strategies linked to comprehensive conflict analysis. The importance of this text is in its comprehensive approach to intervention design, implementation, and evaluation. Geared toward practitioners as well as theorists and academicians, it seeks to fill the gap that can exist between theory and practice in the field.

Organized into three sections (diagnosing conflict, understanding influences and contexts, and intervention), the text provides a process for thinking “generically” about conflict. In doing so, it establishes the essential link between a clear diagnosis of the underlying sources of conflict, understanding the emergent circumstances, and designing effective interventions. Each chapter concludes with a set of questions providing a ready forum for further discussion and assimilation of the material.

Curle, Adam. Making Peace. London: Tavistock Publications Limited, 1971.

Curle writes this book in an effort to understand how it is that unpeaceful relationships become peaceful. Unpeaceful relationships are those that “impede human development” (4). “Active associations, planned cooperation,” and a willingness to “resolve potential conflicts” characterize peaceful relationships (15). For Curle a peaceful relationship is marked by development (efforts to create mutuality) and understanding. Peacemaking is the “art” of moving from unpeace to peace. Peacemaking involves changing relationships so that development can occur.

Curle explores this process of peacemaking along two dimensions: awareness and balance. He then identifies six components of peacemaking: research, conciliation, bargaining, development, education, and confrontation. Part one of the book is a series of case studies that explore specific conflicts in a variety of contexts. Part two more fully develops the six components of peacemaking and goes on to explore the implications of the awareness/balance dimensions for sequencing peacemaking activities. Curle makes clear he is not interested in peaceful unbalanced relationships. While he acknowledges they aren’t all bad (parent and child), he wants to foster balanced, peaceful relationships.

The power of Curle’s analysis lies in his understanding of the connection between imbalance and low awareness in unpeaceful relationships, and the impact this understanding should have on peacemaking efforts. When the parties in a conflict have an unbalanced relationship, education and confrontation must precede efforts at bargaining and conciliation. His model provides the fundamental link between power, resolution, and justice. Conflicts sometimes need to be waged in order to shift power dynamics so that bargaining and conciliation can take place on terms of relative equality. Without this balance, bargaining and negotiation often simply reinforce the status quo.

Deutsch, Morton, and Peter T. Coleman. The Handbook of Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000.

The purpose of this edited volume is reflected clearly in its title. As a handbook, it is designed to give practitioners of conflict resolution access to up-to-date theories and best practices in the field. Grounded in social psychological processes, it explores the knowledge needed to understand and address conflicts at all levels: “interpersonal, intergroup, organizational, and international” (xi).

The authors of each chapter specifically focus on links between theory and practice. How does a particular theory help with a general understanding of conflict and how should it influence training and education practices? The chapters are organized under eight broad themes: 1) “Interpersonal and Intergroup Processes,” 2) “Intrapsychic Processes,” 3) “Personal Differences,” 4) “Creativity and Change,” 5) “Difficult Conflicts,” 6) “Culture and Conflict,” 7) “Models of Practice,” and 8) “Looking to the Future.” Taken together they offer the reader access to a broad range of theories that elucidate what social psychology can teach us about the complexities of social conflict.

Fisher, Roger, William Ury, and Bruce Patton. 2nd ed. Getting to Yes. New York: Penguin Books, 1992.

In the 1980’s this book emerged as one of the most accessible texts to offer the general reader insight into the world of negotiation theory. It has endured in this capacity as both the academic arena and the professional world have focused on the theory and practice of negotiation with increasing intensity. The text introduces the reader to four basic tenants of principled negotiation: 1) separate people from the problem, 2) focus on interests not positions, 3) invent options for mutual gain, and 4) use objective criteria. In the process of outlining these four principles of negotiation strategy, the text teaches people not only how to achieve their goals, but how to do so in a way that also preserves and strengthens relationships. The second edition ends with a section on frequently asked questions that adds depth to the examples used in the first edition.

The longevity of this text lies in both the straightforward and clear explanation of the concepts as well as the concrete examples used to illustrate them. The essential argument, that we can all become more skilled in negotiations that are central in our lives and that we can do so in a way that preserves and builds relationships with our negotiation partners, continues to find a ready audience. The limitation of the text lies in its scope, which is by choice somewhat limited; thus, some of the questions that come with negotiations that are more complex remain.

Galtung, Johan. Peace by Peaceful Means. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1996.

Galtung wrote this book as an introduction and invitation to the field of peace studies. The text is organized around what Galtung argues are the fours parts of peace studies: a theory of peace, a theory of conflict, a theory of development, and a theory of civilization. The result is a text that integrates issues of peace and violence from the interpersonal level to the international and links political decisions to military and economic influences. Providing a framework for understanding human choices and behavior is Galtung’s exploration of the cultures and cosmologies that define what is “normal and natural” (viii) for any given human civilization.

In this text Galtung uses the language of transformation to argue for deep structural and cultural changes when working with conflict. For Galtung, peace studies and conflict work are intimately and inextricably connected. He defines peace as “nonviolent and creative conflict transformation” and argues that in practice “peace work is work to reduce violence by peaceful means” (9). Five chapters in the book outline his theories about conflict. It is here that he develops one of his most enduring contributions to conflict theory, a model for conflict assessment that argues all conflicts must be examined in terms of attitudes and assumptions, behaviors, and contradictions or content, the A + B + C triangle. He also addresses the impact of cultural differences on perceptions of conflict, the variety of ways that conflicts may transform (both good and bad), and intervention approaches. He ends this section of the book with a discussion of nonviolence in truly resolving conflicts because it addresses all aspects of a conflict, the contradiction and the attitudes and behaviors of parties.

Gender and Peacekeeping Online Training Course. Department for International Development
(UK)/Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (Canada). 2002 <http://genderandpeacekeeping.org/>.

This interactive web site is a training tool (in English and French) for individuals working in peace support operations. While its primary audience is practitioners in the field, the content is useful to a wider audience. It explores the ways in which gender impacts those involved in conflict, acknowledging that men, women, boys, and girls all experience conflict differently because of their gender. The basic premise of the site is that understanding the gender dynamics of the conflict is essential for designing effective interventions and fostering sustainable peace.

The site allows you to interact in two formats, as an instructor or a student. The course consists of eight modules. The first three orient the participant to definitions of gender and the importance of understanding the role of gender in conflict. It then moves to a discussion of the role of gender in peace support operations in particular, providing the reader with materials, such as documents on international humanitarian law, which might prove useful when working in post conflict situations.

The course provides sufficient detail and supporting material for one to gain an immense amount of knowledge without having to search outside the site for sources. It engages the participant through a variety of tools, slides, readings, and questionnaires, and allows for the particularities of any given context to surface so that the course can be both general and specific. For those not working on the ground, but wondering about gender issues in post-conflict reconstruction efforts, the site offers insight into questions that need to be asked, and answered.

Gurr, Ted Robert. “Minorities, Nationalist, and Ethnopolitical Conflict.” Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Ed. Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampson, and Pamela R. Aall. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996. 53-78.

In this chapter, Gurr outlines alternative explanations for the existence of ethnopolitical conflicts. Ethnopolitical groups are those collectives that use ethnic or national attributes to define themselves. Ethnopolitical conflicts occur when these groups make claims for the group against the state. Following a brief review of the variations among ethnopolitical groups and statistics on the number of such conflicts since 1945, Gurr moves into the heart of the chapter, which explores why minorities rebel.

Gurr argues that both relative deprivation and group mobilization theories offer insight into why and how groups mobilize for change. It is a sense of shared grievance and a shared identity that can lead to protracted conflict when effectively organized by leaders. Three factors contribute to this mobilization: the traits of the group, the domestic political environment, and international political environments. Each of the factors contributes to the degree of mobilization and the strategies that groups will choose to use in efforts to bring about change.

Gurr cautions that to oversimplify the causes of ethnopolitical conflict is dangerous. Focusing only on group attributes and ignoring other factors in the international context, such as legitimizing actions by international organizations or the supply of arms from sympathetic neighbors, can lead to inadequate policy choices. On the other hand, to underestimate the need of a group to give political or territorial form to a shared identity can also have perilous consequences.

hooks, bell. “Feminist Movement to End Violence.” Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center. Boston: South End Press, 1984.

In this chapter, hooks challenges the notion that ending male violence will end violence against women. She argues that the essentialist notion that men are violent and women are not, ignores the reality that both women and men “accept and perpetuate the idea that it is acceptable for a dominant party or group to maintain power over the dominated by using coercive force” (118).

She takes a strong stance that women have agency and choice. Women may be victims of violence and they may be perpetrators of violence. Male domination based on the use of force and violence is wrong. So is violence in support of white supremacy, or heterosexual violence.

While hooks challenges the notion that ending male violence will end violence in society, she also provides insightful analysis of why male violence against women is so pervasive and so often “overtly condoned” (120). Cultural normalization and idealization of the ideal of male supremacy and the equating of violence with love make challenging cultural norms difficult. Ending male violence against women requires refusing to accept as normal men’s right to dominate women. And ending violence against women will require that we work to end all forms of coercive domination.

Keashly, Loraleigh, and Ronald J. Fisher. “A Contingency Perspective on Conflict Interventions: Theoretical and Practical Considerations.” Resolving International Conflicts: The Theory and Practice of Mediation. Ed. Jacob Berkovitch. Boulder, Colorado: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 1996.

In this chapter, the authors outline what they call a “contingency perspective” on conflict interventions. They argue that in conflicts, third parties play a number of important roles. These roles have “meaningful differences” (236), and an understanding of these differences can lead to more effective interventions.

The authors further argue that while effectiveness is in part the result of role variations, it is also affected by the conditions of the conflict. Thus, one should link the intervention process to variables in the conflict that may influence success. They proceed to outline a typology of interventions and the stages of escalation in a conflict. Different interventions are appropriate at different stages of the conflict, and a failure to match process to stage will increase the likelihood of failure. They finish the chapter with a brief discussion of the usefulness of using complementary interventions or patterns of sequencing and a more extensive review of the empirical research that supports their theory.

Kriesberg, Louis. Social Conflicts. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1982.

In Social Conflicts, Kriesberg provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing group conflicts. Using specific examples, he explores how this general framework is useful in understanding conflict among and between all kinds of groups, small and large. The book is primarily theoretical and analytical, examining what we know about the stages of conflict, and what we need to know primarily from the perspective of sociology.

While the research and examples undergirding the discussion are a bit dated, the framework continues to be a useful one for analyzing intergroup conflict. Kriesberg’s cyclical model of the stages of conflict offers a simple, yet comprehensive method for examining the bases of a conflict and the parties’ emerging awareness of incompatible goals, which lead to particular strategies for pursuing those interests. The model goes on to illuminate how social conflicts end, the particularities of outcomes, and the consequences that follow. In creating and applying the model, Kriesberg offers a method for looking at commonalities across conflicts, allowing for systematic comparisons and guidelines for generalizing theory.

Kritek, Phyllis Beck. Negotiating at an Uneven Table. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1994.

Phyllis Kritek writes as a nurse who, because of her place in the system of medicine, has a particular perspective on what in means to try to negotiate from a position of disadvantage. This experience serves as a backdrop, through stories and exercises, to a powerful treatise on the impact of unacknowledged inequity on negotiation practices and outcomes.

She begins the book by describing what unevenness at the negotiation table may look like. She then asks why, in a culture that values fairness and equality (i.e. the United States), inequality is so pervasive and so invisible? The roots of the distortion for Kritek lie in the very founding of the nation, when democracy was established for a select group. Built into this notion of democracy is the assumption that within the system there are inferiors who cannot really speak for themselves. This distortion is backed by a fixation on dominance power, a zero sum framework that assumes someone will win and the others will lose.

She challenges the reader as a negotiator to examine his or her own assumptions at the table. She then explores strategies typically used in the face of unevenness and dominance power (manipulation). She argues what is needed is for all conflict practitioners to deal with unevenness in more direct and constructive ways. She calls for moral deliberateness, authenticity, and truth telling, and outlines “ten ways of being” as transformative practices for bringing evenness to the negotiating table.

Laue, James. “Getting to the Table: Creating the Forum for Negotiations in Deep-Rooted Conflicts.” Sociological Practice: Conflict Processing. 1992. Ed. Maria R. Volpe and Peter R. Maida.

In this article, Laue examines the “getting-to-the table problem.” The problem is rooted in a conflict resolution tradition that argues true resolution can only come through negotiation or participatory problem-solving processes. Parties need to work together to develop solutions so that basic needs can be met via “joint analysis, relationship building, and problem solving” (134).

The difficulty is in getting parties who often view one another as the “enemy” to sit down and talk to one another. How do you get parties to come to the table? Laue’s solution is to build a forum, a context and space that parties will come to. In the article, he develops three aspects of this process. He first outlines the basic elements of the forum. These include things such as choosing participants and the issues will they discuss. Other questions include: Who will invite parties and how will they communicate? The second issue he discusses is the means for getting the parties to join the forum, exploring the pros and cons of direct and indirect paths to the table. He concludes with a discussion of the value choices that inform the processes used at the table. Will the process be facilitative or adjudicative, private or public, and so on.

The article provides a thorough assessment of what is needed to develop the forum from basic mechanics to a deeper understanding of the values that drive the endeavor.

Laue, James. “Resolution: Transforming Conflict and Violence.” Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution (Lynch Lecture). George Mason University, 1987. Published by the Institute in 1993.

Jim Laue, in a lecture given at the inauguration of the Vernon M. and Minnie I. Lynch Chair in Conflict Resolution, summarized the key assumptions that defined the field of conflict resolution in the late 1980s. A pioneer in the field, an academic, and a practitioner, Jim Laue led the way from conflict settlement approaches to conflict resolution approaches.

For Laue the key assumptions in the field focus on the necessity of conflict in healthy human interaction, the political nature of negotiation, and the need for inclusive processes. He articulates these as the vital elements of conflict resolution processes. Laue argues that true resolution of a conflict cannot occur if those affected by the solutions are not included in the process of creating and implementing them. Means and ends are fundamentally connected and parties need a role in creating the process or means as much as they need to have a voice in creating the solutions or ends. True resolution also requires reaching joint agreements on a solution that satisfies basic needs and values. The success of an agreement and the success of the process are measured by the durability of the agreement … without external enforcement.

One of Laue’s greatest contributions to the field is his willingness to talk about politics and values. Conflict resolution is undergirded by certain values. Participation, consensus decision making, joint agreements—these core values must be present for true resolution to become possible. Without them, conflict resolution can be co-opted as a way to promote the status quo.

Lederach, John Paul. Building Peace: Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997.

John Paul Lederach approaches the work of conflict transformation as a practitioner. Based on his work in a number of conflicts around the world, he develops a framework for dealing with the challenges presented by contemporary intrastate conflicts. His goal is to outline the path by which societies move from violence to sustainable peace. In this text, Lederach makes explicit the connections between negotiating ceasefire agreements or peace accords and the critical work that follows in “the restoration and rebuilding of relationships” (ix). The book begins with a brief review of the nature of contemporary intrastate conflicts, analyzing the contradictions that define deeply divided societies. He then provides a detailed outline of the conceptual framework he proposes for addressing these conflicts with the goal of moving people, relationships, structures, and cultures through a series of stages that transform conflict so that sustainable, peaceful relationships become possible.

The power of this text is threefold. First, it challenges statist approaches to conflict that often focus too narrowly on top-level actors and short-term fixes. Second, it integrates all levels of peacebuilding activities, arguing for the need to connect short-term and long-term goals, and to engage a wide array of actors at all levels of society through both internal and external peacemaking efforts. Finally, in chapter six Lederach outlines specifically and clearly what kinds of changes need to happen, if one wants to claim that conflicts have been transformed.

Lederach, John Paul. The Little Book of Conflict Transformation. Intercourse, Penn.: Good Books, 2003.

In this concise text, Lederach provides a synthesis of two decades of thinking about what it means to use the term “conflict transformation” to describe the work of creating constructive change from conflict. The result is a specific and detailed outline of Lederach’s definition of conflict transformation that is both normative and prescriptive: conflict is healthy and essential; peace is intimately connected to issues of justice; and both interpersonal/direct relationship dynamics and structural realities must be addressed so that justice can be increased and violence decreased. Lederach then couples this definition with a discussion of how the framework helps us to understand particular conflicts and the skills required of a practitioner who seeks to use it effectively.

For Lederach the task of dealing with conflicts is not simple. The process of conflict transformation cannot be captured in a linear four-step program or a 3 x 3 matrix. His diagrams are full of circles, embedded spheres, arrows, and spirals. While the visual result is sometimes confusing, one can appreciate his unwillingness to oversimplify the complex realities of conflict in human relationships or to reduce the variables for the sake of tidiness. The book provides the reader with the concepts and tools needed to use the insights and complexities demanded by the framework

Overall, the book gives us the ability to translate the idea of conflict transformation into useful concepts and provides tools of analysis that allow us to approach the work of conflict change with the complexity it deserves.

Lund, Michael. Preventing Violent Conflicts. Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.

With this text, Michael Lund moves a conversation on the possibilities and problems of conflict prevention to center stage. A whole vocabulary, from early warning signals to preventive diplomacy, brings the discussion from policy halls into academic venues as theorists and practitioners grapple anew with the notion that a party might in some instance want to develop the political will to intervene in a conflict before it escalated out of control.

Lund provides the reader with a clear overview of the factors that compel the desire for more and better early intervention, as well as the concepts and tools that define what this intervention might look like. He then spends a considerable amount of the text articulating “lessons from experience,” using case studies to extract clear and concise statements of “best practices,” given what we know so far. These insights then guide a discussion on policymaking and implementation strategies. He concludes with a chapter on what a “preventive regime” might look like.

Mennonite Conciliation Service. Mediation and Facilitation Training Manual. 3rd ed. Akron, Penn.: MCS, 1995.

Published to provide Mennonite peacemakers with the knowledge and resources to be successful, this manual is packed full of useful information for any peacemaker. It begins in Part One with three chapters that explore the foundations of conflict transformation. This work roots the transformation process in the Mennonite religious tradition and provides the reader with a basic introduction to the concepts of conflict and conflict transformation.

Part Two provides the methodologies of conflict transformation: communication, problem solving, mediation, and group facilitation. Some sections of the manual are theoretical in nature. For example, the chapter on group conflict provides the reader with knowledge about systems theory and family systems dynamics as they are manifest within groups. Other articles offer tools for working in conflict, such as “Dialogue and Consensus-Building Techniques” (210) and “Rituals for Letting Go” (220). Tips for becoming more skilled can be found in “Ten Commandments of Meeting Facilitation” by Ron Kraybill (190).

The contributions come from a wide variety of fields, and a wide variety of experiences. The result is a set of resources grounded in diverse practice, backed by extensive knowledge and experience.

The fourth edition of this manual has developed through the years as a resource used in MCS trainings and is packed full of useful information. The book grows out of the Anabaptist faith tradition, with its biblical and spiritual grounding, and provides the reader with a basic introduction to the concepts of conflict and conflict transformation. Chapters cover conflict transformation’s many dimensions—including cross cultural, race and gender; interpersonal communication and problem-solving—with in-depth articles on one model of interpersonal mediation; group processes, conflict, and systemic change; standards and ethics for practice; and pedagogy—with various exercises.

Some sections of the manual are theoretical in nature. For example, the chapter on group conflict provides the reader with information about systems theory dynamics. Other articles offer tools for working in conflict, such as (in groups), “How to Move from Divided By to Bound Together by Conflict” (252) by Ron Kraybill. There are various articles on consensus-building techniques. Tips for becoming more skilled can be found in many articles, such as “Handling Difficult Situations” by Sandi Adams (196).

The contributions come from a wide variety of fields, and a wide variety of experiences. The result is a set of resources grounded in diverse practice, backed by extensive knowledge and experience.

Miall, Hugh. “Conflict Transformation: A Multi-Dimensional Task.” Berghof Handbook for Conflict Transformation. Aug. 2004. Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management. <http://www.berghof-handbook.net/std_page.php?LANG=e&id=1>.

In this article, Miall seeks to answer the question: Does a theory of conflict transformation exist? He argues that, minimally, conflict transformation theories exist, and distinctive elements and key dimensions are emerging that are re-conceptualizing the field, setting it apart from earlier incarnations of conflict settlement and conflict resolution theory.

Three attributes too often define contemporary conflicts. They are protracted and asymmetric in nature, and, because of local and global factors, often result in “complex emergencies” (3) that require intervention strategies that are “comprehensive and wide-ranging” (4). Contemporary conflicts require transformations in “relationships, interests, discourses” (4), and often the very structures of societies.

Miall explores the elements that constitute a comprehensive strategy of conflict transformation. He begins with a summary of many of the major conflict theorists (Galtung, Curle, Azar, Vayrynen, Rupeinghe, and Lederach) using their work to lay out key aspects and boundaries of a conflict transformation perspective. He then articulates the next extension of conflict transformation theory, spelling out a “theory of conflict-in-context” (7). He does this by adding dimensions to Galtung’s original conflict triangle model. In order to develop an analysis that includes parties, issues, goals, and context, he adds “context” to Galtung’s a) “contradiction,” b) “memory to attitudes,” and c) “relations to behavior.” He then argues that five types of transformation take place: context transformations, structural transformations, actor transformation, issue transformations, and personal changes of heart or mind. These transformations correlate with the various levels of conflict causation—individual to global—and link each level to the different sources and phases of conflict that affect intervention timing and choice. He develops several helpful models that illustrate the various relationships he describes.

He ends his article with a discussion of conflict transformers. Who are the individuals, groups, and organizations that do the work of transforming conflict? Overall, this work provides a comprehensive mapping of the components needed to create structural change in conflicts as opposed to models that focus more on simply creating agreements.

Moore, Chris. The Mediation Process. 3rd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003.

Now in its third edition, The Mediation Process by Chris Moore remains one of the most thorough texts exploring what mediators do when they intervene in conflicts. The text uses both research and personal experience to explore and explain the process of mediation and mediation theory. It begins with an overview of mediation, situating it within the larger field of dispute resolution. Following a more detailed review of the process in chapter two, subsequent chapters explore every aspect of the mediation process from preparation to reaching final agreements.

The text provides a detailed explanation of mediation as a general process, particularly as it is applied in interpersonal, small group, family, and organizational contexts. In addition, there are chapters that help the reader understand what is involved when mediation is used in multi-party disputes, thus making it a useful text for those interested in mediation in public or environmental disputes. Many of the chapters end with a section on cultural approaches in which Moore explores differences in how cultures understand and respond to conflict, and the implications of these differences for mediation work.

The overall success of the text lies in its focus on those principles and processes of mediation that remain constant across conflict levels and types. The focus on what is common, enhanced by discussions of special issues and circumstances, makes the book highly useful to practitioners in a wide variety of conflict settings.

Pruitt, Dean, and Sung Hee Kim. Social Conflict: Escalation, Stalemate, and Settlement. 3rd ed. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2004.

This text offers a comprehensive survey of social conflict theory based primarily in psychological theory. Part One of the book begins with an exploration of the basic definitions of conflict and then moves to a discussion of factors, aspects of the context, attributes of the parties, and social psychological dynamics of group life that contribute to the development of a conflict. It ends with two chapters that explore conflict behaviors and the mechanisms that influence parties’ choices. Parts Two and Three provide a comprehensive survey of processes that influence the escalation of a conflict, and the processes and mechanism that lead to de-escalation and resolution.

The authors ground their work in a wide range of disciplines, with psychological research providing the basis for many of the concepts and theories they advance. They use a wide range of examples to illustrate and explain their premises, providing useful information for those interested in interpersonal, group, or international conflict. The text is accessible and comprehensive, providing useful concepts and tools for understanding conflict and for responding to it in productive ways.

Ramsbotham, Oliver, Rom Woodhouse, and Hugh Miall. Contemporary Conflict Resolution. 2nd ed. Malden, Mass.: Polity Press, 2005.

In this revised and updated edition, the authors present a comprehensive survey of the field of conflict resolution. The text begins with an overview of basic concepts and definitions of terms central to the study of conflict and conflict resolution. The second chapter provides the reader with a brief but thorough review of the major contributors to the field as well as a discussion of “four generations” of theorizing about the means for building peaceful societies. The next two chapters outline the essential characteristics that define many conflicts taking place in the international arena today, and key concepts needed to understand them. The following six chapters deal with conflict resolution work at different stages in the conflict process, ranging from prevention through peacemaking to peacebuilding and finally reconciliation work. The second part of the book then moves to a discussion of current issues that pose critical challenges to the field. These topics range from terrorism to gender and culture to ethics and dialogue.

The authors choose in this text to continue to use the term conflict resolution, arguing that conflict transformation is “the deepest level of the conflict resolution tradition” (8) and thus assume part of the goal of conflict resolution is structural and cultural transformation. Perhaps the greatest asset of this text is its thoroughness, both in a review of the field and in the attention it pays to the critiques leveled at the field over the years. The authors seek to provide clear answers to the questions raised by the critics and in doing so provide the groundwork for the next generation of theorists to move the field forward.

Reychler, Luc, and Thania Paffenholz, eds. Peacebuilding: A Field Guide. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2001.

This book is a handbook written as a readily accessible guide for people working in conflict situations. It provides links between research and practice and a wealth of experience from practitioners who have a wide variety of experience. This text invites the reader to engage in a dialogue with the authors. They discuss the various strategies, tools, and roles that field workers embody. The text itself reveals a normative framework that calls for collaboration with local communities, stronger links between development work and peacebuilding work, more training, and more intentional sharing of wisdom gained and lessons learned.

While it does not offer a six-step process for all situations, it is designed to be of practical use. It takes a broad perspective on the work needed to bring about sustainable peace and divides it into four pieces: 1) preparing for the field, 2) working in the field, 3) surviving in the field, and 4) essential lessons learned. Each section gives guidance on such essentials as finding qualified people, choosing intervention locations, monitoring human rights abuses, designing training programs, and managing stress. There are also sections that address more theoretical issues such as how to mainstream gender perspectives, and the principles of good process design.

In the preface of the book, the editors comment that the world seems to need an immense number of people willing to do peacebuilding work. Yet, this work is not always successful and can in fact be counter productive. This text addresses these concerns by initiating a conversation that asks field workers to think about the big picture—How is what I am doing contributing to peace or not?—and provides them with a framework for doing it.

Rupesinghe, Kumar, ed. Conflict Transformation. New York: St. Martin’s Press, Inc., 1995.

In this edited volume, contributions reflect an acknowledgment of the need “conflictologists” have identified to move beyond the idea that conflicts can be resolved in any permanent way. Rupensinghe argues that conflict transformation is characterized by flexible and comprehensive processes that seek to replace cultures of violence with norms that focus on negotiation and accommodation as the mechanisms by which conflicts are resolved. Thus, transformation explores the imperative for ongoing processes that seek to change structures through “dynamic and sustained responses” (viii). The chapters in the volume contain a wide mix of topics aimed at exploring conflict transformation in detail. Topics covered include greater definition of the term, case studies exploring the role of various actors and processes in bringing about transformation, and discussions of key factors, culture and identity in particular, that must be attended to if transformation is the goal.

The text does not provide a systematic framework for understanding conflict transformation. Its strength lies in the ability of the individual chapters to offer the reader useful and thought-provoking insights into particular aspects of the concept.

Schellenberg, James. Conflict Resolution: Theory, Research and Practice. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1996.

Divided into three sections, this text integrates research and practice in the field of conflict resolution. It provides a general and accessible overview of the field of conflict studies and conflict resolution research (part one), theories of the origins of conflict in the human condition (part two), and the forms of conflict resolution work (part three).

The book is useful in two ways. For the new student of conflict resolution it provides a general history of the field and introduces basic terms and concepts. The wide range of resolution methods covered provides an interesting orientation, and the examples are helpful in clarifying differences among the various processes discussed.

In addition, the second section provides a succinct summary of a number of theories regarding the origins of conflict in human relationships. As the author notes in the prologue, humans have a variety of explanations for the existence of conflict. These theories directly affect assumptions about how one should handle conflicts. This connection between causes and appropriate responses is a critical aspect of analysis that is often overlooked. Schellenberg’s summaries are useful for developing an understanding of the variety of explanations that exist and the research that supports or contradicts them.

Sebenius, James K. “Six Habits of Merely Effective Negotiators.” Harvard Business Review 79.4 (April 2001): 87-95.

Sebenius in this article approaches the question of what it takes to be an outstanding negotiator by outlining six of the most common negotiation errors. The mistakes include:
1) neglecting the other side’s problem, 2) letting price bulldoze other interests, 3) letting positions drive out interests, 4) searching too hard for common ground, 5) neglecting BATNA’s, and 6) failing to correct for skewed vision.

Each “mistake” is described and illustrated with concrete examples. For instance, in exploring mistake number two, Sebenius outlines interests beyond price that are key to successful negotiation: the relationship, the social contract, the process, and the interests of players who can block or sabotage the agreement. Sebenius is highly cognizant of the competing aspects of the negotiation process, rational choice influenced by perception and affect, the need for cooperation and the drive for competition, and, finally, the reality that all negations involve creating and claiming value. The discussion of each “mistake” points to ways to manage these tensions successfully and to exploit their value.

This article is an artful blend of negotiation theory firmly grounded in experience, which results in a concise synthesis of best practices that point the negotiator toward more skilled practice. Whether negotiating the price of a car or a complex multi-party, multi-issue conflict, the insights shared are essential for negotiating good outcomes.

Sharp, Gene. The Politics of Nonviolent Action. Part One: Power and Struggle. Boston: Port Sargent Publisher, 1973.

With the publication of this book, Gene Sharp begins the preeminent articulation of a theory of nonviolent action. It begins with the acknowledgment that some conflicts must be addressed through struggle. Resolution and transformation, if they are to come, must follow the “wielding of power” (4).

Sharp begins with a discussion of power. Contrasting social power and political power, he argues that the “exercise of power depends on the consent of the ruled” (4). Nonviolent power comes from the withdrawal of consent. Chapter 2 defines what behavior constitutes nonviolent action. Acts of omission and acts of commission, alone or combined, serve as the foundation for a series of methods (protest, non-cooperation, non-violent intervention, boycotts, strikes, establishment of parallel government, etc.) that work to alter power relations and bring about desired changes.

Throughout the book, Sharp uses historical examples to illustrate, explain, and inspire. No one who reads Sharp can confuse nonviolent action with passiveness or nonresistance. Nonviolence for Sharp is forceful action; it is a method of struggle.

Stone, Douglas, Bruce Patton, and Sheila Heen. Difficult Conversations: How to Discuss What Matters Most. New York: Penguin Books, 1999.

As the title suggests, this book deals with “difficult conversations,” those conversations people know they should have but do not. There are times when people need to deliver a message that is hard to say and hard for the listener to hear. This book helps readers understand what makes these conversations hard and what they can do to make delivering a tough message more productive.

The authors argue that what makes some conversations hard is that they are, in fact, three conversations: the “what happened” conversation, the “feeling” conversation, and the “identity” conversation. The authors explore how each of these conversations gets in the way of clear communication, and what one can do to make each of these conversations part of a clear “learning conversation.”

The communication pitfalls identified by the authors are key to understanding how and why interpersonal conflicts often escalate. The explanations and examples used by the authors offer the reader a clear pathway to dealing with tough but important conversations.

Wilmot, William and Joyce Hocker. Interpersonal Conflict. 7th ed. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2007.

From a communication perspective, Interpersonal Conflict is a highly accessible synthesis of the “principles of effective conflict management.” Beginning with a comprehensive definition, the authors take apart the components of conflict, giving the reader insight into the complex dynamics that influence interpersonal conflict. They explore how each individual’s history affects one’s experiences of conflict and how cultural experiences shape perceptions and understandings of conflict.

Wilmot and Hocker offer a number of models for understanding conflict dynamics and response styles as well as tools for conducting comprehensive conflict assessment. The chapter on power is particularly useful for assessing one’s own understanding of power, thinking about the role of power in conflict, and developing useful strategies for dealing with power differences. Later chapters are devoted to resolution processes and strategies: negotiation, personal change, third party intervention, conflict prevention, and forgiveness and reconciliation.

Scattered throughout the text are scenarios and case studies that allow the reader to integrate the material more fully through the ready application exercises the authors provide. The text is clearly written to provide useful skills to the reader rather than an abstract theoretical assessment of the field. The book is up-to-date, supported with current research from the field.

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Last Updated: October 2007